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Eleanor’s discussion paper features a snapshot of the research findings from her Honours thesis that assessed the impact of social media use and personality. Given the surge in reliance on social media platforms to assist with social distancing measures, Eleanor’s research aims to spark reflection on our current understandings of the association between personality factors and their impact on problematic social media use.

With over 1.32 billion users daily, Facebook is the most popular social networking site (SNS) on the Internet[1]. Facebook is distinct from other SNSs because it offers an all-encompassing functionality whereby users can receive all of these specific functions on the one platform[2]. This convenience and versatility of use has led to an increase in popularity and global usage[3]. By providing a platform that can be used for self-expression and impression management, Facebook has created a social phenomenon that has engrossed young people and adults all over the world. This, however, has now led to an online environment where individuals have the perfect setting to create the ‘ideal’ identity. Researchers have identified that individuals develop socially desirable identities online, often referred to as “Facebook Selves” to achieve such positive outcomes[4].

A key feature of Facebook is that it provides users the platform to communicate asynchronously, through their profiles, photos, comments and messages. While this encourages users to stay in touch with friends, it also allows users to create online profiles that present desirable and self-expressive information[5]. While it has been found that people communicate positive life events more frequently than negative events, these are often not an accurate representation of an individual’s life offline and in the “real world”[6]. Consequently, the positive and exaggerated content that individuals view from their Facebook newsfeeds can have a damaging impact on one’s attitude, emotions and perceptions of self.

Defining problematic Facebook use

Problematic Facebook use (henceforth PFU) refers to a type of problematic online behaviour that interferes with different domain’s in one’s life such as work, study and relationships[7]. Researchers in this field indicate that Facebook use may become “problematic” when it causes distress such as poor wellbeing[8], cognitive difficulties[9] and decreased self-esteem and self-image[10]. Although PFU is an emerging area of study, evidence has suggested that the overuse of Facebook and other Internet activities could, in some extreme cases, be considered a form of addiction[11].

It is well documented that online behaviours, including Facebook use, can affect mental health and psychological wellbeing[12]. However, the type of usage (i.e., how the online application is actually used) greatly influences the psychological outcome. Prior research indicates that Facebook behaviour can be dichotomised into active (interactive) and passive (non-interactive) forms of usage[13]. Active use refers to activities that involve direct exchanges with others (e.g., commenting on posts, posting photos) whilst passive use involves consuming information without direct exchanges (e.g., scrolling through the newsfeed, viewing posts). This distinction is important because cross-sectional work has linked active use with improved subjective wellbeing and feelings of social connectedness[14] and passive use with reduced levels of wellbeing, and feelings of envy[15].

How does social media influence behaviour?

One mechanism that highlights the way in which social media platforms influence behaviour is a well-established psychological theory known as social comparison orientation (i.e., the need to compare oneself with others). Accordingly, multiple studies that have shown positive correlations between Facebook use and social comparison orientation[16]. An example of a social comparison mechanism is through engaging in upward social comparisons - comparing oneself to another who appears “better-off”.

Engaging in social comparisons fulfils a number of functions, such as affiliation needs and regulating emotions[17]. While there are benefits to engaging in upward social comparisons, such as being motivated to strive for greater success, individuals are more likely to feel inadequate and have poorer self-evaluations[18]. For example, one study[19] found that the amount of social comparisons made on Facebook were increasingly associated with more negative feelings caused by those comparisons, concluding that people tend to feel bad when comparing themselves to others on Facebook. This demonstrates that frequent exposure to highly curated and unrealistic portrayals on Facebook may consciously or unconsciously give individuals the impression that others are living happier lives than them.

The darker side of social media: predictors of problematic Facebook use

Many branches of psychology are concerned with observing and understanding social connections. While psychologists recognise the potential of Facebook to connect many people together, less is known about the intersection of social media and various kinds of psychopathology, including personality issues. Two personality concepts that may help to explain current problematic online behaviour are Narcissism and Fear of Missing Out.

It is expected that individuals may develop a dependence on Facebook as a self-regulation tool to satisfy these psychological needs, much in the same way that vulnerable narcissists do. Researchers have found that FoMo is predictive of increased Facebook engagement and lowered wellbeing[20]. Further evidence indicates that FoMo has been positively associated with envy and loneliness, as well as increased stress related to Facebook use[21]. As the concept of FoMo is relatively new, it requires further exploration in order to be demonstrated as a personality characteristic that can explain PFU and its association with mood symptoms.

The current study – findings summary

The primary purpose of this research was to investigate whether personality factors, specifically the two subtypes of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, would increase our understandings of the risk factors for developing PFU. Specifically, we were interested in testing if the tendency to overuse Facebook could be explained, to some degree, by narcissistic tendencies. Investigating the ways in which PFU, a relatively new construct in social media research, was related to personality characteristics provided valuable insight.

Firstly, it was found that gender differences were present, with females reporting significantly higher PFU and online social behaviour than males. Second, contrary to predictions, FoMo was a stronger predictor of PFU than narcissism variables. As the two subtypes of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism are relatively recent to the literature, these findings are consistent with current studies that indicate narcissism is predictive of PFU. Our research proposes that instead of focusing on the mechanisms in which Facebook influences behaviour, such as motivations, forms of usage, and social comparison, these mechanisms could potentially be explained by individuals who have elevated narcissistic traits.

Moreover, our findings indicate that exploring PFU with individual constructs such as FoMo warrant priority in current research. As deficits in psychological needs may increase people’s sensitivity to develop a fear of missing out, it is probable that individuals with increased levels of FoMo develop a dependence on Facebook as a self-regulation tool in the same way that individuals with vulnerable narcissism do. Correspondingly, results from our research also indicate that the strongest personality characteristics associated with PFU all had underlying features of anxiety (i.e., FoMo, vulnerable narcissism and stress). This suggests that anxiety-based personal characteristics may be a risk factor for developing PFU.

As PFU is a new area of research, our findings hope to provide a valuable starting point in examining how individual personality constructs can be predictive of developing PFU. The results of the present study hope to contribute to current understandings of the association between personality factors and PFU, highlighting that narcissism and FoMo may be useful explanatory concepts for understanding proneness to persistent and problematic social media use. Although social media use is a widespread behaviour, the current study proposes that individuals with some of these characteristics could potentially be targets for interventions that aim to prevent addictive and problematic online behaviour. As global usage of Facebook continues to increase, the ability to understand the implications of its use and the characteristics of its users is paramount in directing future research and intervention.

By Eleanor Lontos, Provisional Psychologist, Provisional Psychologist, BPsycSc (Hons) MPsych (Clinical) Candidate 
Eleanor is a Provisional Psychologist currently completing her Masters in Clinical Psychology at the ���˴�Ƭ. Eleanor’s passion for Clinical Psychology involves exploring and evaluating the thought processes that influence behaviour and decision-making outcomes. This has assisted her in working with a diverse group of individuals by utilising the skills needed to connect with people who are dealing with distress and are seeking psychological guidance.

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Footnotes

[1] Steers, M. L., Quist, M. C., Bryan, J. L., Foster, D. W., Young, C. M., & Neighbors, C. (2016). I Want You to Like Me: Extraversion, Need for Approval, and Time on Facebook as Predictors of Anxiety. Transl Issues Psychol Sci, 2(3), 283-293. doi:10.1037/tps0000082.

[2] Burke, T. J., & Ruppel, E. K. (2014). Facebook Self-Presentational Motives: Daily Effects on Social Anxiety and Interaction Success. Communication Studies, 66(2), 204-217. doi:10.1080/10510974.2014.884014

[3] Smith-Duff, C. (2012). Facebook Use and its relationship with Self-Esteem, Personalities and Addictive Tendencies. (Bachelor of Arts (Social Science)), DBS School of Arts Dublin, Dublin. 

[4] Burke, T. J., & Ruppel, E. K. (2014). Facebook Self-Presentational Motives: Daily Effects on Social Anxiety and Interaction Success. Communication Studies, 66(2), 204-217. doi:10.1080/10510974.2014.884014

[5] Burke, T. J., & Ruppel, E. K. (2014). Facebook Self-Presentational Motives: Daily Effects on Social Anxiety and Interaction Success. Communication Studies, 66(2), 204-217. doi:10.1080/10510974.2014.884014

[6] Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw, 17(10), 652-657. doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0070

[7] Marino, C., Gini, G., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). A comprehensive meta-analysis on Problematic Facebook Use. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 262-277. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.009

[8] Oldmeadow, J. A., Quinn, S., & Kowert, R. (2013). Attachment style, social skills, and Facebook use amongst adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 1142-1149. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.006

[9] Eşkisu, M., Hoşoğlu, R., & Rasmussen, K. (2017). An investigation of the relationship between Facebook usage, Big Five, self-esteem and narcissism. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 294-301. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.036

[10] Perrone, M. A. (2016). #FoMO: Establishing validity of the Fear of Missing Out scale with an adolescent population. (Doctor of Philosophy Doctor of Philosophy), Alfred, Alfred, New York.  

[11] Marino, C., Gini, G., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). A comprehensive meta-analysis on Problematic Facebook Use. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 262-277. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.009

[12] Stead, H., & Bibby, P. A. (2017). Personality, fear of missing out and problematic internet use and their relationship to subjective well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 534-540. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.016

[13] Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., Kross, E. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480-488. doi:10.1037/xge0000057

[14] Indian, M., & Grieve, R. (2014). When Facebook is easier than face-to-face: Social support derived from Facebook in socially anxious individuals. Personality and Individual Differences, 59, 102-106. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.016

[15] Frost, R. L., & Rickwood, D. J. (2017). A systematic review of the mental health outcomes associated with Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 576-600. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.001

[16] Ozimek, P., Bierhoff, H.-W., & Hanke, S. (2018). Do vulnerable narcissists profit more from Facebook use than grandiose narcissists? An examination of narcissistic Facebook use in the light of self-regulation and social comparison theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 168-177. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.016

[17] Lin, R., & Utz, S. (2015). The emotional responses of browsing Facebook: Happiness, envy, and the role of tie strength. Comput Human Behav, 52, 29-38. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.064

[18] Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(4), 206-222. doi:10.1037/ppm0000047

[19] Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., . . . Kross, E. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480-488. doi:10.1037/xge0000057

[20] Perrone, M. A. (2016). #FoMO: Establishing validity of the Fear of Missing Out scale with an adolescent population. (Doctor of Philosophy Doctor of Philosophy), Alfred, Alfred, New York.  

[21] Hetz, P. R., Dawson, C. L., & Cullen, T. A. (2015). Social Media Use and the Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) While Studying Abroad. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 47(4), 259-272. doi:10.1080/15391523.2015.1080585