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Despite many advances in the understanding of soot evolution in flames, the processes that control it are so complex that current models cannot predict them reliably, particularly in turbulent flames. This is because both the chemical pathways that produce and oxidise soot, and the turbulent transport and mixing processes within a flame are both complex and non-linearly coupled.

The scale of the challenge of achieving reliable prediction in these conditions is so great that it can only be met through a coordinated global endeavour. For this reason, the International Sooting Flames Workshop has been established to bring together leading experimentalists, modellers and theoreticians to generate the required insights and provides the high fidelity data needed for assessing the performance of different models applied to a series of 鈥渢arget flames鈥�. These test case are purpose designed to provide rigorous testing of models under simplified conditions of relevance to practical flames.

The development of predictive models requires high quality experimental data obtained from a series of flames, so that the models can be assessed for a range of conditions, using burners that are purpose designed for the development and validation of models. Such data are usually provide most reliably with optical diagnostics obtained with laser excitation, since these are non-intrusive, selective and typically provide the best spatial and temporal resolution.听 Various teams around the world are continuing to advance the development of methods of parameters with a flame, such as soot volume fraction, temperature and particle size, together with the soot precursor molecules.

Our team is continuing to develop and apply new state-of-the-art optical diagnostic measurements for measurement in flames with soot. We target planar (i.e. two dimensional imaging) techniques, which are suitable for laminar as well as turbulent flames. The key methods we have established in our laboratory are:

• Planar measurement of temperature using two-line atomic fluorescence of indium (TLAF)
• Planar measurement of soot volume fraction using laser induced incandescence (LII)TEXT
• Planar measurement of primary particle diameter using time resolved laser induced incandescence (TiRe-LII)
• Planar imaging of the position of the OH radical with planar laser induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF);
• Planar measurement of velocity using particle image velocimetry (PIV)

Our team has applied our laser diagnostic techniques to a series of flames, the results of which have been published in leading international journals and are also available for the international community through the ISF website. Many of these have been selected as targets for modelling by the Workshop. The key flames investigated to date are:

• A series of three flames with different type of burner nozzle to compare the effect of global strain rate on soot;
• A series of flames with either constant strain rate or constant Reynolds number, providing simultaneous measurement of temperature and volume fraction;
• A series of bluff body flames to assess the effect of hydrogen addition on soot;
• Simultaneous measurements of temperature, soot volume fraction and primary particle diameter in a flame previously investigated by collaborators in DLR, Stuttgart, both to cross check measurement accuracy and provide new data;
• A series of laminar flames in which the effect of dilution with hydrogen or nitrogen was systematically varied, providing measurement of temperature, soot volume fraction and primary particle diameter;
• A series of investigations reporting the influence of high flux irradiation on the soot and temperature in a flame, reporting soot volume fraction and temperature.
• A pool fire burning a range of fuels, measuring soot volume fraction.

Academic and research staff

Professor Gus Nathan
Professor

Professor Bassam Dally
Professor

Asc Prof

Asc Prof

Dr Zhiwei Sun
Research Associate

Dr Michael Evans
Research Associate

The sooting flames research group actively collaborates with researchers from across the globe. Current collaborators include:

• , RWTH Aachen, Germany;
• , University of Sydney, Australia;
• , University of Utah;
• , Princeton University, USA;
• , DLR Stuttgart, Germany;
• , University of Toronto, Canada;
• , Sandia National Laboratory, Livermore, USA.

Listed below are selected recent publications on the topic of sooting flames.

Journal articles

[1] Z.W. Sun, B. Dally, G. Nathan, Z. Alwahabi, Effects of hydrogen and nitrogen on soot volume fraction, primary particle diameter and temperature in laminar ethylene/air diffusion flames, Combustion and Flame, 175, 270-282 (2017).
[2] S.M. Mahmoud, G.J. Nathan, Z.T. Alwahabi, Z.W. Sun, P.R. Medwell, B.B. Dally, The effect of exit strain rate on soot volume fraction in turbulent non-premixed jet flames, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 36, 889-897 (2017). .
[3] A. Jocher, K.K. Foo, Z.W. Sun, B. Dally, H. Pitsch, Z. Alwahabi, G. Nathan, Impact of acoustic forcing on soot evolution and temperature in ethylene-air flames, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 36, 781-788 (2017). .
[4] D.H. Gu, Z.W. Sun, B.B. Dally, P.R. Medwell, Z.T. Alwahabi, G.J. Nathan, Simultaneous measurements of gas temperature, soot volume fraction and primary particle diameter in a sooting lifted turbulent ethylene/air non-premixed flame, Combustion and Flame, 179, 33-50 (2017)..
[5] K.K. Foo, Z.W. Sun, P.R. Medwell, Z.T. Alwahabi, B.B. Dally, G.J. Nathan, Experimental investigation of acoustic forcing on temperature, soot volume fraction and primary particle diameter in non-premixed laminar flames, Combustion and Flame, 181, 270-282 (2017). .
[6] D.H. Gu, Z.W. Sun, G.J. Nathan, P.R. Medwell, Z.T. Alwahabi, B.B. Dally, Improvement of precision and accuracy of temperature imaging in sooting flames using two-line atomic fluorescence (TLAF), Combustion and Flame, 167, 481-493 (2016). .
[7] X. Dong, Z.W. Sun, D.H. Gu, P.J. Ashman, Z.T. Alwahabi, B.B. Daily, G.J. Nathan, The influence of high flux broadband irradiation on soot concentration and temperature of a sooty flame, Combustion and Flame, 171, 103-111 (2016). .
[8] Z.W. Sun, D.H. Gu, G.J. Nathan, Z.T. Alwahabi, B.B. Dally, Single-shot, Time-Resolved planar Laser-Induced Incandescence (TiRe-LII) for soot primary particle sizing in flames, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 35, 3673-3680 (2015). .
[9] Z.W. Sun, Z.T. Alwahabi, D.H. Gu, S.M. Mahmoud, G.J. Nathan, B.B. Dally, Planar laser-induced incandescence of turbulent sooting flames: the influence of beam steering and signal trapping, Applied Physics B-Lasers and Optics, 119, 731-743 (2015). .
[10] S.M. Mahmoud, G.J. Nathan, P.R. Medwell, B.B. Dally, Z.T. Alwahabi, Simultaneous planar measurements of temperature and soot volume fraction in a turbulent non-premixed jet flame, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 35, 1931-1938 (2015). .
[11] X. Dong, G.J. Nathan, S. Mahmoud, P.J. Ashman, D.H. Gu, B.B. Dally, Global characteristics of non-premixed jet flames of hydrogen-hydrocarbon blended fuels, Combustion and Flame, 162, 1326-1335 (2015). .
[12] P.R. Medwell, A.R. Masri, P.X. Pham, B.B. Dally, G.J. Nathan, Temperature imaging of turbulent dilute spray flames using two-line atomic fluorescence, Experiments in Fluids, 55, (2014). .
[13] Q.N. Chan, P.R. Medwell, G.J. Nathan, Algorithm for soot sheet quantification in a piloted turbulent jet non-premixed natural gas flame, Experiments in Fluids, 55, (2014). doi: 10.1007/s00348-014-1827-0.
[14] M.E. Mueller, Q.N. Chan, N.H. Qamar, B.B. Dally, H. Pitsch, Z.T. Alwahabi, G.J. Nathan, Experimental and computational study of soot evolution in a turbulent nonpremixed bluff body ethylene flame, Combustion and Flame, 160, 1298-1309 (2013). .
[15] G.J. Nathan, P.A.M. Kalt, Z.T. Alwahabi, B.B. Dally, P.R. Medwell, Q.N. Chan, Recent advances in the measurement of strongly radiating, turbulent reacting flows, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38, 41-61 (2012). .
[16] Q.N. Chan, P.R. Medwell, P.A.M. Kalt, Z.T. Alwahabi, B.B. Dally, G.J. Nathan, Simultaneous imaging of temperature and soot volume fraction, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 33, 791-798 (2011). .
[17] Y. Wang, G.J. Nathan, Z.T. Alwahabi, K.D. King, K. Ho, Q. Yao, Effect of a uniform electric field on soot in laminar premixed ethylene/air flames, Combustion and Flame, 157, 1308-1315 (2010). .
[18] N.H. Qamar, Z.T. Alwahabi, Q.N. Chan, G.J. Nathan, D. Roekaerts, K.D. King, Soot volume fraction in a piloted turbulent jet non-premixed flame of natural gas, Combustion and Flame, 156, 1339-1347 (2009). .
[19] T.L. Henriksen, G.J. Nathan, Z.T. Alwahabi, N. Qamar, T.A. Ring, E.G. Eddings, Planar measurements of soot volume fraction and OH in a JP-8 pool fire, Combustion and Flame, 156, 1480-1492 (2009). .

Laminar Flames

ISF-3 Linked Co-flow Flames 2

Turbulent Flames

ISF-3 Target Flame 1
ISF-3 Other Flame 1 (Soot measurements only)

For enquiries regarding data and lab equipment

Dr Zhiwei Sun
Centre for Energy Technology
Institute for Mineral and Energy Resources
The 成人大片
SA 5005 Australia
zhiwei.sun@adelaide.edu.au
Phone: +61 831 32310

For enquiries regarding collaborative work

Prof. Graham 鈥楪us鈥� Nathan
Centre for Energy Technology
Institute for Mineral and Energy Resources
The 成人大片
SA 5005 Australia
graham.nathan@adelaide.edu.au
Phone: +61 8313 5822

Prof. Bassam Dally
Centre for Energy Technology
Institute for Mineral and Energy Resources
The 成人大片
SA 5005 Australia
bassam.dally@adelaide.edu.au
Phone: +61 8313 5397